Colorado Technical Business Protocols for a Human Service Organization Discussion

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Understanding the Contexts

Elaborate on the importance of understanding the context and business protocol for a human service organization that operates in a macro environment that is diverse both in terms of population involved and organizations that serve as change agents. Find one academic source that presents a study of cultural context while developing recommendations for human service organizations. Share your findings from this article.

CULTURE AND CONTEXT

We have stressed throughout this book that communication is context dependent. Social interaction is not arbitrary, nor disorderly, nor randomized. It occurs in culturally determined, patterned rituals that dictate normative ways of speaking and behaving in each specific situation, such as in the classroom, interviews, casual conversation, sports events, etc. Our point is that communication does not occur in a void; to some degree, the social and physical setting, more commonly referred to as the communication context, influences communication.

Culture plays a primary role in establishing specific, shared rules that stipulate the communicative behaviors appropriate for different social and physical contexts. When communicating with members of your own culture, you rely on deeply internalized cultural protocols that define acceptable behavior for each particular communication situation. These rules, which facilitate your ability to communicate effectively, are so ingrained that you do not have to think consciously about which rule to use when moving from one context to another.

During intercultural communication interactions, difficulties can arise because you and your communication partners rely on different standards. Communication rules exhibit a great deal of cultural diversity, making the possibility of miscommunication an ever-present consideration. To avoid these pitfalls, you need to be aware of the potential problems that differences in culturally based protocols can bring to an intercultural exchange. This chapter aims to demonstrate how cultural norms can vary across three social contexts common to intercultural communication—the business, education, and healthcare settings.

Human interaction does not occur in a void. To some degree the social and physical setting, commonly referred to as the communication context, can influence everything, including seating arrangement, topic selection, attire, posture, and eye contact.

ASSUMPTIONS GROUNDING COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS

Before beginning our examination of context influence and in order to further emphasize just how important the social context is in any intercultural communication contact, we will examine three basic assumptions about human communication that are directly applicable to any discussion of context: (1) communication is rule governed, (2) context prescribes the appropriate communication rules, and (3) communication rules vary across cultures.

COMMUNICATION IS RULE GOVERNED

Both consciously and unconsciously, people expect that their interactions will follow appropriate and culturally determined rules—rules that inform both parties about the proper communicative behavior for specific circumstances. Communication rules act as guidelines for both one’s own actions and others actions. As Wood points out, these rules “are shared understandings of what communication means and what kinds of communication are appropriate in particular situations.”1

Communication rules govern both verbal and nonverbal behaviors and specify not only what should be said but also how it should be said. Nonverbal rules, as we saw in Chapter 9, apply to paralanguage, touch, facial expressions, eye contact, and other nonverbal behaviors. Verbal rules govern such things as topic selection, turn taking, voice volume, and the formality of language used as well as directness and indirectness.

Rules are also used to manage interpersonal relationships. Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge explain that an extensive set of rules governs friendships (emotionally trusting the other person vs. keeping secrets) and conflict (raising your voice vs. not showing any emotion).2 These cultural rules, like most aspects of culture, are learned, integrated into the self, and adhered to when communicating.

CONTEXT DICTATES COMMUNICATION RULES

Our second assumption is that the context specifies the appropriateness of the rules to be employed. Your personal experiences should validate that position. Consider how such diverse contexts as a classroom, bank, church, hospital, courtroom, wedding, funeral, or sporting event determine which communication rules you follow. In an employment interview, you might use formal or respectful words, such as “sir” or “ma’am,” when responding to the interviewer. Yet, at a football or basketball game, your language would be far less formal, incorporating slang phrases and quite possibly good-natured derogatory remarks about the opposing team. For that job interview, men might wear a dark suit with white or blue shirt and conservative tie, and women would probably dress in a dark suit with a white or pastel blouse. At the sports event, jeans or shorts and a T-shirt could be appropriate. Your nonverbal behavior would also be different. At the interview, you would probably shake hands and maintain eye contact with your prospective employer, but at the football game with friends, you might embrace them when you meet, slap them on the back, or hit a “high-five.”

COMMUNICATION RULES VARY ACROSS CULTURES

Our third assumption is that communication rules are, to a large extent, determined by culture. While social contexts are similar across cultures (e.g., negotiations, classrooms, hospitals), the rules governing communication in those contexts are often dissimilar. Consequently, concepts of dress, time, language, manners, and nonverbal behavior differ significantly among cultures. A few examples will illustrate the point.

When conducting business in the United States, it is not uncommon for men and women to welcome each other to a meeting by shaking hands. In the Middle East, however, some Muslim businessmen may choose to avoid shaking hands with a woman. This should not be perceived as rude or insulting but rather as a reflection of the man’s religious proscriptions. This was seen during President and Mrs. Obama’s 2015 visit to Saudi Arabia to express condolences after the passing of the late King Abdullah. As Saudi officials filed past to greet the Obamas, some men shook Mrs. Obama’s hand, but others did not, instead acknowledging her with a nod.3

In an Asian college classroom, students may appear reserved, hesitant to participate in discussions, and reluctant to ask questions. This is due to the cultural standards regarding the hierarchy that governs interaction between Asian students and their professors. Cultural differences can also be found in the business context when you compare business hospitality in Turkey and the United States. In Turkey, for example, your Turkish colleagues will be adamant about paying for everything associated with your entertainment. Turkish hospitality is legendary, and you will not be permitted to pay for any part of an official meal.

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS

To provide a perspective on how intercultural communication varies across cultures and contexts, we have selected the business, education, and healthcare settings for analysis. The level of cultural diversity within the United States will necessitate that many of you interact with a wide variety of cultures if you seek a career as a teacher, a healthcare provider, or business executive. Some of you may find yourself working abroad for a globalized organization. In that position you will certainly have to interact with members of the host culture in both a professional and a social capacity. Additionally, you may require medical care during your sojourn. To be successful in those settings, it is essential that you be aware of your own culture’s rules and how they might differ from the rules of the person with whom you are interacting. It is also important for you to keep in mind that intercultural communication plays a vital role in many other contexts, a few of which are illustrated in

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN GLOBALIZED BUSINESS

The extensive changes that globalization has brought to nearly every aspect of life on this planet have been noted throughout this book. There is probably no segment more impacted by these many changes than the business community. Over the past several decades, “outsourcing,” “offshoring,” “multinational enterprise,” “globalized markets,” “workforce diversity,” “cultural intelligence,” and similar terms have become common business terms. U.S. corporations’ customer-service call centers are just as likely to be located in India, the Philippines, or Mexico as in Utah, Texas, or Florida. Online shopping has accelerated commercial exchanges across national borders. PayPal, for instance, manages approximately 2,000 international transactions every minute. This type of activity requires companies to open storage warehouses in various countries in order to expedite merchandise delivery.5

TABLE 10.1 Contexts for Contemporary Intercultural Communication

Business

Negotiations

Management

Advertising

Finance

Legal

Courts

Law enforcement

Contracts

Oversight/regulatory compliance

Healthcare

Clinical

Psychological

Traditional

Social Services

Immigration assistance

Welfare/unemployment benefits

Domestic services

Diplomatic

Coalition building

Maintaining alliances

Treaties

Trade pacts

Goodwill programs

Politico-Military

Peacekeeping forces

Military exchanges/Joint exercises

Weapons sales

Arms reduction verification

Armed conflict (interrogations

U.S. corporations focusing on the domestic economy must also be prepared to manage the contemporary cultural diversity that characterizes both their clientele and their workforce. For multinational corporations (MNCs), the requirement for competent intercultural skills extends across all phases of their enterprise—management, production, marketing, and sales. To gain market location-specific advantages, MNCs commonly establish manufacturing sites, distribution centers, and sales and marketing forces in separate countries. This type of organization requires executives, managers, and often members of the workforce to be familiar with cultural differences among clients, employees, and local government regulation enforcement agencies. These same people need to possess the ability necessary to communicate across these multicultural boundaries. Hence, cultural knowledge and intercultural communication skills have become fundamental to almost every type of commercial endeavor—international or domestic.

“Globalization can be conceptualized as a situation where political borders become increasingly more irrelevant, economic interdependencies are heightened, and national differences due to dissimilarities in societal cultures are central issues of business.”

The requirement to engage in intercultural communication always increases the potential for misunderstanding and conflict, but in business relations, it can also mean the difference between success and failure. To illustrate the very vital role that culture plays in globalized commercial activities, we will examine five culturally sensitive areas: (1) business protocol, (2) leadership and management, (3) decision making, (4) conflict management, and (5) negotiations

Business protocol involves forms of behavior such as establishing initial contact, greeting conventions, personal appearance, gift giving, and communication improprieties, with cultural differences in these protocols varying widely. For instance, while informality is the norm in most U.S. business settings, that protocol is not shared by all cultures. When conducting business in another culture it is highly important to understand and follow the prevailing customs. Knowing how to dress and introduce yourself, for instance, is especially important during initial interactions, when making a positive impression is critical to continued good relations.

Making initial contact is an important aspect of globalized business. The methods used to establish these contacts vary among cultures and can range from sending an email, to placing an unsolicited telephone call, to writing a formal request for a meeting, to using a “go-between” or emissary to help obtain an appointment. The appropriate procedure to use relates directly to the culture of the person you wish to contact. In the United States, initial contacts are often facilitated by a third-party introduction, but this is not a necessary requirement. “Cold calls” can also be used to gain access, and every U.S. embassy has an office dedicated to helping businesses make preliminary contact. In many cultures, however, business is based on established, trusted relationships. For instance, in Northeast Asia (China, Japan, and Korea), India, and Latin America, having a trusted third-party provide the initial introduction is often the only way to gain access to an organization’s executives.

After gaining entry, it becomes important to acknowledge and attempt to practice the established cultural greeting behaviors of that nation. By knowing the appropriate greeting behavior and a few expressions in the language of the host culture, you will have a general idea of what to expect. This will enable you to reduce uncertainty and anxiety. You will also have an advantage in making a positive first impression. A significant consideration when meeting someone of another culture for the first time is knowing the proper form of address. What is the order of names? Should you use the first name, last name, or title? What gestures are appropriate?

Your experience has taught you that in the United States, first names precede family names, a firm handshake is expected, and after exchanging initial greetings, individuals often begin using first names. Titles such as “doctor” or “professor’ are appropriate only in certain settings and are often dropped after establishing relations. However, in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and several other cultures, the family name precedes the given name. Thus, in Seoul, Kim Eun-Ju would be Ms. Kim, whose given name is Eun-Ju (there are no middle names in Korea). If Ms. Kim has a professional title, that should be made part of any address to her. It is also important to know that in Korea, married women retain their own family name. Thus, Ms. Kim’s husband may be Mr. Lee or Dr. Park. On meeting, a bow is usually rendered to Korean women and men, accompanied by a handshake between men. Although it may be normal in the United States for men to grasp the shoulder or upper arm of another man when meeting, this behavior should be avoided in Asian cultures. However, among close associates in Mexico, a brief embrace (abrazo) on meeting and departing is entirely appropriate. In the more formal German culture, where all titles are used, Herr Professor Doktor Schmidt would expect a firm handshake.

Personal appearance is yet another critical aspect of business protocol, as it creates a first impression and plays a significant role in establishing credibility.8 The relaxed dress code common in many U.S. organizations is a reflection of the informal U.S. culture. Casual dress has become even more popular among the dot-com generation in the United States, and the late Steve Jobs, founder of Apple, made informal dress his hallmark. But while this informality is often seen as a mark of status among the younger U.S. generations, it can be perceived quite differently in cultures where formality is the norm. In China, Germany, France, much of Latin America (including Mexico), and many other nations, conservative dress, such as dark suits and white or pastel shirts, is the norm for the business environment.

The exchange of gifts in the international business context can be somewhat challenging, as expectations differ among cultures. In individualistic Western cultures, gift giving can be associated with attempts to curry favor. The attitude against corruption is so strong that the United States has a federal statute prohibiting bribery, and the Internal Revenue Service limits gift deductions to $25.9 Such restrictions make it necessary for the international business representative to be able to distinguish between what may be considered a gift and what might be seen as a bribe. From the perspective of the United States, suitable gifts for exchange with representatives of another organization are small, relatively inexpensive mementos intended to commemorate an event or organization or to serve as an expression of appreciation and solidarity. These include such things as cups, key rings, glasses, books, etc., which are inscribed with the company’s logo.

When engaged in business with a foreign organization, it is useful to know not only the local views concerning gift giving but also what is considered an appropriate gift. In some cultures the color white is associated with death, so white flowers and white gift wrap should be avoided. Of course, giving alcohol to a Muslim host would be most inappropriate. In China, Korea, and Japan, you should use both hands when offering or receiving a gift. In the United States the number thirteen is considered bad luck, but in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, a gift set containing four items should be avoided because their words for “four” and “death have similar sounds. There are, of course, numerous other cultural nuances related to gift giving, so before setting out to visit a business counterpart in another country, learn as much as possible about what is considered suitable in the host country, when to present the gift, and how it should be presented. Although these details may seem trivial, without an appreciation of what is appropriate and inappropriate, you run the risk of destroying any goodwill before discussion of the business proposal even begins.

You undoubtedly know the value of using “small talk” to get to know another person. You will also have learned that there are some topics that should not be addressed during these early meetings or perhaps ever discussed at all. The choices of initial conversational topics during social interactions are dictated by standards that often differ across cultures. In order to avoid embarrassing social blunders, it is necessary to understand which topics are acceptable in the host country and which subjects are considered off limits.

In the United States, an initial meeting may begin with comments about the weather and quickly proceed to more personal questions, such as “Do you have a family?” or “Where did you go to school?” While these may be perfectly acceptable between Americans, they could be considered too personal in many other countries. In Saudi Arabia, for example, one should avoid asking about a man’s wife.10 Because status plays such an important role in Japan, asking what school someone attended could be a source of embarrassment. In the United States, the topics of personal salary and income are seldom part of social conversation, and the question of one’s age can be a sensitive topic for many people. But in China, employees at state-owned enterprises (SOE) usually know the salary structure and may inquire about yours. And the Japanese may ask you very early on about your age, if you have a hobby, and even your blood type, which they believe can forecast personality. The Taiwan situation can be a controversial subject in China. Again, before traveling to another country, we encourage you to conduct research to determine which topics should be avoided.

As we discussed in the chapter on language, humor generally does not travel well across cultural lines, particularly in professional settings—a joke in one culture can be an insult in another. Irony is common in the United States but is seldom understood in Japan. A standard attentiongetting technique for Americans is to begin a presentation with a joke. But in Germany and France, this would be inappropriate because business meetings are serious events. Our advice is to wait until you have established a good relationship with your international counterpart before attempting to inject humor into your conversations

Leadership and Management

According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there were 25.3 million foreign-born workers in the U.S. labor force in 2013. Another report indicated that there were as many as 600,000 people working in the United States under the H-1B visa program, which allows foreign specialists to stay in the country for as long as six years.11 These workers are integrated into U.S. organizations alongside native-born employees, requiring the management of cultural and linguistic differences within work teams. Nor is this situation unique to the United States, as globalization has internationalized workforces around the world. Concern about the changes arising from globalization prompted one organization to commission a major study on the changing nature of work and growing workplace diversity. Two key findings related to intercultural communication are provided here:

[A 2009] survey found that it is cultural and linguistic differences that present by far the most pressing challenge for virtual-team managers. Differences in culture appear in a broad range of attitudes and values, greatly increasing the potential for a breakdown in team cohesiveness. Such differences span a wide range of areas, including attitudes toward authority, teamwork and working hours. Cultural and linguistic misunderstandings, both internally and with prospective clients, can be very costly.

[A 2012 survey] found that one-half of companies admit that communication misunderstandings have stood in the way of a major cross-border transaction, incurring significant losses for their company.12

Globalization has created circumstances where business executives from all over the world are meeting face-to-face to establish joint ventures and negotiate contracts.

In these increasingly culturally diverse work groups, every employee possesses culturally specific expectations toward management issues such as organizational structure, employee-supervisor relationships, motivational factors, and reward allocation, all of which can vary. To be successful, a global manager must be aware of the potential that cultural differences carry. Table 10.2 contains some culturally influenced management considerations and provides a generalized comparison of normative practices and employee expectations in Northeast Asian and Euro-American organizations.

Most Euro-American organizations subscribe to a “flat” structure, where work team members and managers consider each other more or less equal. Communication is informal and forthright. This organizational structure is thought to encourage a collegial atmosphere that promotes individual creativity and initiative. Pervasive individuality among Euro-Americans results in worker responsibilities and entitlements being contractually specified and little sense of organizational loyalty, which creates a highly mobile workforce as employees move from job to job in pursuit of greater personal benefits. In contrast, companies in Northeast Asia are usually characterized by a “vertical,” or hierarchical, organizational structure, and employees subscribe to a well- defined hierarchy, showing deference to seniors. Work groups are expected to follow the directives of their supervisors. In China, Korea, and Japan, traditional norms dictate that employees of large, multinational organizations demonstrate loyalty to the company,13 although there are signs that this is changing. The role that relations play among Northeast Asians was revealed in a report that showed that 60 percent of the Chinese surveyed considered interpersonal relationships as being important in their lives but that only 29 percent of the U.S. Americans in the study felt that way.

TABLE 10.2 Cultural Variances in Organizations

MANAGEMENT CONCERN NORTHEAST ASIAN EURO-AMERICAN

Organizational structure • Vertical • Horizontal

Organizational relationships • Hierarchal • Egalitarian

Basis of trust • Interpersonal relations • Legal system

Basis for promotion • Time/age • Merit

Reward allocation • Equal for all • Equitable to individual

Involvement in personal life • High/expected • Low/undesired

Employee morale and motivation are also influenced by a worker’s cultural preference for individuality or group membership. In Western organizations, especially in the United States, individuals are normally singled out for recognition and reward. This trend is evident in many workplaces where photos are prominently displayed of “Employee of the Month, Quarter, and/or Year.” These individuals may receive a certificate or a plaque at a formal ceremony, along with additional rewards, such as a small bonus or perhaps a dedicated parking space for a specific period of time. In contrast, employees in Northeast Asian organizations consider all work group members to be part of an integrated team and equally responsible for the success or failure of a project. Accordingly, rewards are expected to be distributed equally. Personal recognition can lead to friction within the group and potential embarrassment for the individual

A globalized Silicon Valley firm sought to motivate its multicultural workforce using posters saying, “Slay the Dragon”. However, the Chinese workers objected because in China, dragons are considered good luck. The posters were removed.15

Different cultures also have varied perspectives on how mentoring should be conducted. In Euro-American organizations, mentoring often assumes a structured, programmed format designed to assist a specific group, such as the highly talented, socially disadvantaged, or physically challenged, for a specific time period. Quite in contrast, in Japanese corporations, the mentor—mentee relationship is personal, often emotionally based, and intended to be long term.16

Dissimilar culturally instilled attitudes toward work and leisure can also impact globalized organizations. Recalling our discussion of values in Chapter 6, the United States is considered to be a “doing culture,” where work is an important, valued activity that usually takes precedence over almost everything else. However, employees from some other cultures may have very different attitudes and priorities. Table 10.3 illustrates the different views of work and leisure that must be managed in a multicultural workforce.

Religion is yet another consideration for global managers. In some cultures, religion is personal and separate from professional life, but in other cultures, religion permeates every aspect of work and social activity. Religion presents a host of considerations for the global manager—workweek schedule, holidays, diet, alcohol consumption, dress, accessibility to place of worship, worldview, etc. Some nations have laws governing how religion can be treated, as a New Zealand manager of a bar and restaurant in Myanmar discovered. After an advertising poster of a blue Buddha, wearing headphones, on a psychedelic-colored background was posted on Facebook, he and two other individuals were arrested and sentenced to two and a half years in prison. Myanmar has a national law prohibiting the insulting, damaging, or destruction of any religion, and the Facebook posting was considered an insult.18

TABLE 10.3 Attitudes Toward Work17

STATUTORY MINIMUM ANNUAL DAYS LEAVE

NATION DAYS

United States 0

China ? 10

South Korea ? 15

Russia ? 20

Brazil ? 20

France ? 24

Decision Making

A central part of any business venture is decision making. Every executive and manager, regardless of culture, must continually weigh a range of variables and decide on the best course of action. In a globalized organization, culture takes on added importance in decision making. In diverse contexts, such as personnel management, new product development, market expansion, and sales campaigns, cultural norms have significant impact. Global managers must weigh cultural variables for both domestic and international markets while managing cultural differences among employees, clients, and any other stakeholders. Globalization has also increased awareness of the role of culture in the decision-making process. Effective multinational corporation managers must understand who makes decisions and how those decisions are made. Table 10.4 compares decision-making styles in Northeast Asian and selected Western cultures.

Broadly speaking, decision making for Northeast Asians is a collectivistic process that attempts to reach an orchestrated consensus that sustains group harmony and preserves the participants face. There are, however, distinct differences among the three cultures. “Leader-mediated compromise” is how Wenzhong, Grove, and Enping have described decision making in Chinese organizations. This process incorporates data collection and analysis, canvassing subordinates for their opinions, distribution of background data, and meetings to discuss the issues. Senior members retain and exercise personal power by ultimately making a top-down decision crafted to reflect the groups assessments and efforts. The final result is a “harmony-within-hierarchy arrangement” designed to convey a sense of shared responsibility, create cohesion, and lessen loss-of-face opportunities among the work group participants.19 In Japanese organizations, the stronger sense of institutional collectivism produces a much more inclusive consensus-based decision-making style, one structured to avoid relational disharmony. Japanese managers employ what could be called a middle-level up-and-down process. All affected personnel subject disseminated ideas and proposals to comprehensive discussion. If an agreement is reached, the proposal will be sent to upper-management and executive levels. When a consensus emerges, the proposal becomes policy. This method provides the opportunity for everyone to engage in the process of decision making. But shared decision making often requires considerable time to reach a final decision.

TABLE 10.4 Cultural Variations in Decision Making

NORTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS (China, Japan, Korea) WESTERN NATIONS (Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, United States)

Deliberative • Delegated authority

Consensus oriented • Individual oriented

Shared responsibility • Individual responsibility

Group cohesion and harmony • Positive result

In Western nations, specifically those listed in Table 10.4, decision making is more individualistically oriented, with delegated authority usually vested in one person or a small group of personnel who are expected to take full responsibility for the final decision. This results in an expedient, top-down decision style based on the careful analysis of various options and potential outcomes. The opinion of experts and others may be solicited during the process, but there is no requirement or guarantee that their advice will be followed. This type of decision making is a reflection of the strong sense of individualism, egalitarianism, independence, and low levels of uncertainty that characterize Western culture. A Western manager working in a globalized organization will have to recognize and accommodate to the importance placed on face, group orientation, and positive social relations when engaged in decision making with employees from Northeast Asian nations.

Conflict Management

At almost every level of commercial activity, the potential exists for interpersonal and organizational conflict. Given that cultural beliefs and values contrast, the methods, opinions, and attitudes regarding the completion of tasks and achievement of goa